GS3

India’s wildlife conservation strategy, while progressive on paper, grapples with fragmented
implementation and socio-ecological imbalances. The Wildlife Protection Act (WPA), 1972, and
projects like Project Tiger have stabilized tiger populations (3,167 in 2022) but failed to address
systemic issues like habitat fragmentation, bureaucratic inertia, and exclusion of local communities. For
instance, 30% of India’s elephant corridors remain unprotected, forcing herds into farmlands and
triggering conflicts that claim 400+ lives annually.
Flaws in Current Wildlife Protections:
1. Legislative-Community Disconnect
The WPA Amendment (2021) introduced stricter penalties for poaching but overlooked tribal rights
under the Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006. In Odisha’s Similipal Tiger Reserve, eviction drives displaced
indigenous communities without consent, exacerbating distrust and illegal logging. Similarly, Critical
Tiger Habitats often bypass community consultations, violating the Godavarman Thirumulpad
Judgment (1996) that mandates participatory forest governance.
2. Inadequate Conflict Mitigation
Compensation schemes for crop or life losses remain plagued by delays. Karnataka’s ₹10 crore annual
allocation for HWC relief covers only 40% of claims, leaving farmers vulnerable. Infrastructure projects
like Kerala’s Aranmula Airport, approved despite protests over wetland destruction, highlight policy
apathy toward ecological carrying capacity.
3. Technological and Resource Deficits
Only 20% of Protected Areas use advanced tools like thermal drones or M-STrIPES for monitoring.Assam’s Kaziranga National Park, despite AI-enabled patrols, struggles with staff shortages (1 guard per
7 sq. km), enabling poaching networks to thrive.
Reimagining Conflict Mitigation:
1. Decentralized, Tech-Driven Governance
• Community-Led Surveillance: Nagaland’s Khonoma Village reduced hunting by 90% through tribal
patrols and camera traps. Replicating this in Karnataka’s Bandipur could curb leopard attacks.
• Predictive Analytics: The Wildlife Institute of India’s AI model, predicting elephant movements in
Tamil Nadu, reduced crop raids by 50%. Scaling this with GIS-based corridor mapping can preempt
conflicts.
2. Economic Incentives and Equity
• Crop Insurance 2.0: Maharashtra’s Beej Swaraj insures millet farmers against wildlife raids, cutting
retaliation killings by 60%.
• Eco-Tourism Cooperatives: The Bugun tribe in Arunachal Pradesh earns ₹5 crore annually from
their community reserve, fostering stewardship of the critically endangered Bugun liocichla.
3. Legal-Environmental Synergy
• Habitat Rights Recognition: Chhattisgarh’s Achanakmar Reserve granted habitat rights to Baiga
tribes, reducing illegal logging by 70%.
• Green Infrastructure: Kerala’s Nelliyampathy eco-bridges, built afterstudying elephant movement
patterns, reduced roadkill by 80%.
4. Climate-Responsive Policies
Droughts in Karnataka’s Cauvery Basin have pushed elephants into coffee estates. Adopting Israel’s
drip-irrigation models to reduce water-intensive crops near forests could ease resource competition.
Innovative Models for Coexistence
i. Assam’s Hathi Mitras: Villagers trained as “elephant allies” use floodlights and WhatsApp groups to
alert communities, cutting casualties by 40%.
ii. Rajasthan’s Project Leopard: AI-enabled camera traps near Jodhpur send real-time alerts to
farmers, minimizing nocturnal conflicts.
iii. Gujarat’s Lion Ambassadors: Maldharis (pastoralists) in Gir collaborate on lion conservation,
proving that livelihoods and predators can coexist.
Beyond Policy: Cultural Shifts
Traditional practices like Meghalaya’s sacred groves or Rajasthan’s Orans (community forests)
demonstrate indigenous conservation wisdom. Integrating these into state policies, as done in Bhutan’s
Gross National Happiness Index, can bridge modern governance and cultural ecology.

Karnataka’s paradox of facing recurrent droughts despite significant rainfall in regions like the Western
Ghats stems from uneven rainfall distribution, poor water governance, and ecological degradation.
While coastal areas receive 4,029 mm of annual rainfall, arid regions like Koppal and Yadgir face deficits of
70% or more. Climate change has exacerbated this variability, with 2023 marking Karnataka’s lowest August
rainfall since 1901.
Key Causes of Water Scarcity
i. Erratic Rainfall and Climate Change:
a. Rainfall Disparity: 66% of Karnataka’s land receives <750 mm annually, leaving northern
districts like Kalaburagi drought-prone.
b. Climate Shocks: Deforestation (4,228+ acres lost to mining since 2005) and rising
temperatures have disrupted microclimates, reducing groundwater recharge.
ii. Unsustainable Water Use:
a. Groundwater Exploitation: Over 64% of groundwater is over-drafted, with 72% of
Karnataka’s area now drought-prone.
b. Crop Mismanagement: Water-intensive crops like sugarcane in arid zones (e.g., Vijayapura)
deplete aquifers, worsening scarcity.
iii. Institutional Gaps:
a. Delayed Compensation: Only 40% of drought relief claims are settled promptly, eroding
farmer resilience.
b. Weak Implementation: Projects like the Sujala-3 watershed scheme show potential but face
scalability issues due to funding and bureaucratic delays.

Role of Watershed Management
Watershed management has proven effective in addressing water scarcity through ecological
restoration and community participation:
i. Sujala-3 Project:
a. Land Resource Inventory (LRI): Provides farmers with soil and crop suitability data,
improving yields by 30–40% in Bidar and Kalaburagi.
b. Scientific Planning: Focuses on drought-proofing 11 districts through rainwater harvesting
and agroforestry.
ii. WOTR’s Ecosystem-Based Approach:
a. Recharges aquifers via contour trenches and check dams, increasing water availability by
25% in Maharashtra’s drought-prone areas.

b. Builds community resilience through climate-smart agriculture (e.g., millet farming in
Raichur).
Impact: Watershed projects have revived 5,000+ hectares in the Nilgiris and reduced soil erosion by 40%
in Uttara Kannada.

Interlinking of Rivers: Prospects and Challenges
Karnataka’s participation in river interlinking aims to balance regional water deficits but faces hurdles:
• State-Led Initiatives:
i. Bedti-Varada Link: Aims to divert water from Uttara Kannada’s high-rainfall zones to
drought-hit Haveri and Ballari.
ii. Netravati-Hemavati-Cauvery Link: Seeks to supply water to Chitradurga’s drylands but risks
ecological harm to Western Ghats.
• Central Projects:
i. Godavari-Krishna-Pennar-Cauvery Link: Karnataka opposes the current plan, as it prioritizes
Andhra and Tamil Nadu, leaving Karnataka with minimal benefits.
Challenges:
i. Ecological Risks: Interlinking disrupts river ecosystems (e.g., mangrove loss in the Kali estuary).
ii. Political Disputes: States like Telangana and Odisha resist sharing surplus waters.
iii. Cost Overruns: The Ken-Betwa link’s ₹44,000 crore budget highlights fiscal challenges.
Integrated Solutions for Water Security
1. Scale Up Watershed Models:
• Expand Sujala-3 to all 195 drought-hit taluks, using GIS for real-time monitoring.
• Promote agroecological practices: Andhra’s Zero-Budget Farming reduced water use by 30%.
2. Reform River-Linking Strategies:
• Prioritize intrastate links (e.g., Bedti-Varada) over contentious interstate projects.
• Adopt Israel’s drip irrigation in canal networks to cut agricultural waste.
3. Strengthen Governance:
• Enforce SDG 6 targets via district-level water budgets and aquifer mapping.
• Legislate groundwater quotas for industries, as done in Tamil Nadu.
4. Climate Adaptation:
• Restore shola grasslands and sacred groves to enhance rainfall retention.
• Replicate Kerala’s Responsible Tourism Mission, using eco-tourism revenue for wetland
restoration.
Conclusion
Karnataka’s water crisis demands a dual approach: localized watershed management to empower
communities and judicious river interlinking to address regional disparities. By integrating traditional
knowledge (e.g., Kodagu’s kere systems) with innovations like AI-driven irrigation, Karnataka can transform
its water governance from crisis-driven to resilience-focused.

Ecosystem services valuation (ESV) involves quantifying the economic benefits provided by ecosystems,
such as provisioning (e.g., water, food), regulatory (e.g., carbon sequestration, soil retention), cultural
(e.g., recreation, spiritual), and supporting services (e.g., biodiversity). By assigning monetary values to
these services, ESV helps policymakers recognize their contributions to human well-being and economic
development, enabling informed decisions that balance conservation and growth.
ESV in Karnataka’s Western Ghats:
1. Economic Value of Ecosystem Services:
o A study estimated the annual economic value of ecosystem services in Karnataka’s
Western Ghats at US$612 million, including non-timber forest products (NTFPs), carbon
sequestration, soil protection, and recreation .
o NTFPs alone contribute 60% of household income for Adivasi communities in regions like
Biligiri Rangaswamy Tiger Wildlife Sanctuary (BRTWS) and Sargur Wildlife Sanctuary (SWS).
2. Role of Indigenous Communities:
o Adivasi communities’ sustainable management practices ensure the delivery of ecosystem
services. Their traditional knowledge is critical for maintaining biodiversity and ecosystem
health .
3. Policy Implications:o ESV can integrate ecosystem values into state/national income accounts, aligning policies
with Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) such as poverty reduction (SDG 1), clean
water (SDG 6), and climate action (SDG 13) .
o Monetizing services like carbon sequestration (valued at Rs. 138.4 million annually in three
protected areas) can justify conservation over land conversion for agriculture or industry .
Influence of ESV on Policy Decisions
1. Informed Conservation Planning:
o ESV data can prioritize high-value ecosystems for protection. For example, the Western
Ghats’ role in carbon sequestration and water regulation could guide policies to restrict
mining or deforestation .
2. Livelihood Security for Indigenous Communities:
o Recognizing the economic value of NTFPs and traditional practices can empower Adivasi
communities to participate in forest governance, ensuring their rights under the Forest
Rights Act (2006) .
3. Sustainable Development:
o ESV supports green accounting frameworks like the System of Environmental-Economic
Accounting (SEEA), enabling policymakers to measure the depletion of natural resources
and externalized costs of ecosystem degradation .
4. Conflict Resolution:
o Quantifying ecosystem values can mediate conflicts between developers and
conservationists. For instance, the economic benefits of eco-tourism in protected areas
(e.g., Rs. 138.4 million annually) may outweigh short-term gains from land conversion .
Challenges and Recommendations
1. Technical and Data Limitations:
o ESV methods (e.g., market pricing, travel cost) require robust data. Pilot studies in
Karnataka’s forests highlight the need for standardized valuation techniques .
2. Community Participation:
o Co-design policies with Adivasi communities to ensure equitable benefits. For example,
involving them in eco-tourism management can enhance income and conservation
outcomes .
3. Policy Integration:
o Embed ESV into state-level planning, such as Karnataka’s Natural Capital Accounting, to
align conservation with economic goals .
4. Addressing Overlooked Values:
o Recognize non-monetary benefits (e.g., cultural heritage, spiritual well-being) to avoid
commodification risks .

Conclusion
Monetizing ecosystem services in Karnataka’s Western Ghats can transform policy decisions by
highlighting the region’s economic and ecological significance. By integrating ESV into planning,
policymakers can promote sustainable development, protect biodiversity, and empower indigenous
communities. This approach aligns with global best practices, such as the EU’s Nature-Based Solutions
framework, which emphasizes multi-functional benefits and stakeholder engagement .

The Indian Constitution is one of the most detailed and comprehensive constitutions in the world. Its key features include:

1. Lengthiest Written Constitution – Unlike other nations, India’s Constitution is detailed, with 470 Articles and 12 Schedules.
2. Preamble – Declares India as a Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic Republic and ensures Justice, Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity.
3. Federal Structure with Unitary Bias – Power is divided between the Centre and States, but the Centre has overriding authority in emergencies.
4. Parliamentary System – The President is the constitutional head, while the Prime Minister leads the executive.
5. Fundamental Rights and Duties – Guarantees six fundamental rights (e.g., Right to Equality, Right to Freedom) and eleven fundamental duties.
6. Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP) – Inspired by the Irish Constitution, these guide the government in achieving social justice and economic equality.
7. Independent Judiciary – The Supreme Court ensures justice through judicial review and safeguards constitutional supremacy.
8. Secularism – India maintains religious neutrality, ensuring freedom of religion.
9. Emergency Provisions – The Constitution provides for National, State, and Financial Emergencies to tackle crises.
10. Universal Adult Franchise – Ensures voting rights for all citizens above 18 years.

The uniqueness of the Indian Constitution lies in its blend of rigidity and flexibility, judicial activism, progressive amendments, and its adaptability to changing socio-political needs.

Why is this unique?

1. Dual Amendment Process:
   • Some provisions can be amended by a simple majority in Parliament, making it flexible.
   • More significant changes require a special majority (two-thirds of Parliament) and, in some cases, ratification by at least half the states, making it rigid.
2. Continuously Evolving Document:
   • With over 100 amendments, it adapts to the country’s changing social, economic, and political needs.
   • Landmark amendments, like the First Amendment (1951), strengthened free speech limitations and protected land reforms, while the 42nd Amendment (1976) added the words “Socialist, Secular, and Integrity” to the Preamble.

Judicial Activism & Public Interest Litigation (PIL):

• The Indian judiciary has taken an active role in shaping laws and protecting citizens’ rights by interpreting the Constitution dynamically.
• Through Public Interest Litigations (PILs), even ordinary citizens can approach courts on behalf of disadvantaged groups.
• Landmark cases like Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan (1997) led to legal protections against sexual harassment at the workplace, showing how courts can influence policy when the legislature fails to act.

Five Important Constitutional Amendments and Their Significance
The Indian Constitution has undergone several amendments to address socio-political and economic changes. Here are five key amendments and their significance:

1. The 42nd Amendment Act, 1976 (“Mini Constitution”)
🔹 Significance:
•Strengthened the power of the central government and reduced judicial review.
•Added the words “Socialist,” “Secular,” and “Integrity” to the Preamble.
•Made Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP) superior to Fundamental Rights in certain cases.
•Restricted judicial review of constitutional amendments (later overturned in Minerva Mills case, 1980).
•Extended the term of Lok Sabha and State Assemblies from 5 to 6 years (reversed by the 44th Amendment).
________________________________________
2. The 44th Amendment Act, 1978
🔹 Significance:
•Restored fundamental rights curtailed during the Emergency (1975–77).
•Removed the right to property from Fundamental Rights (Article 19(1)(f) & Article 31), making it a legal right under Article 300A.
•Made the proclamation of National Emergency (Article 352) more difficult by requiring written advice from the Cabinet.
•Ensured that fundamental rights, including life and liberty (Article 21), cannot be suspended during an emergency.
________________________________________
3. The 73rd Amendment Act, 1992 (Panchayati Raj System)
🔹 Significance:
•Established a three-tier system of Panchayati Raj institutions: Gram Panchayat, Panchayat Samiti, and Zilla Parishad.
•Added Part IX and the Eleventh Schedule to the Constitution.
•Provided constitutional status to Panchayati Raj institutions.
•Reserved one-third of seats for women and provisions for SCs/STs.
•Strengthened local self-governance in rural areas.
________________________________________
4. The 86th Amendment Act, 2002 (Right to Education)
🔹 Significance:
•Made education a fundamental right by inserting Article 21A.
•Mandated free and compulsory education for children aged 6 to 14 years.
•Modified Article 45 to extend early childhood care for children below six years.
•Added a fundamental duty (Article 51A(k)) for parents to provide education to their children.
________________________________________
5. The 101st Amendment Act, 2016 (Goods and Services Tax – GST)
🔹 Significance:
•Introduced the Goods and Services Tax (GST), replacing multiple indirect taxes with a single tax system.
•Added Article 246A, giving both Parliament and State Legislatures the power to make GST laws.
•Established the GST Council to regulate tax rates and policies.
•Simplified taxation by integrating Central and State taxes like VAT, excise, and service tax into GST.
________________________________________
Conclusion
These amendments have played a crucial role in shaping India’s political, economic, and social landscape. While some strengthened democracy (44th, 73rd, 86th), others addressed economic reforms (101st) and governance structures (42nd). The amendment process ensures that the Constitution remains dynamic and adaptable to India’s evolving needs.

The Earth’s atmosphere is a layer of gases that surrounds the planet, playing a vital role in supporting life, regulating temperature, and driving weather and climate patterns. It is divided into five major layers: the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere. These layers are separated by transition zones called pauses (tropopause, stratopause, mesopause, and thermopause), which act as boundaries influencing temperature and atmospheric conditions.

Structure of the Atmosphere

1. Troposphere (0-12 km) – The Weather Layer
•The lowest layer, containing 75% of the atmosphere’s mass and most of the Earth’s water vapor.
•All weather phenomena (rain, storms, winds, and clouds) occur here.
•Temperature decreases with altitude (about 6.5°C per km).
•The layer is crucial for weather and climate as it regulates temperature and moisture.
Tropopause (12 km) – Acts as a boundary preventing rising air from entering the stratosphere, keeping weather events within the troposphere.

2. Stratosphere (12-50 km) – The Ozone Layer
•Contains the ozone layer, which absorbs harmful UV radiation, protecting life on Earth.
•Temperature increases with altitude due to ozone absorption.
•The jet stream flows here, influencing global weather patterns and aviation routes.
•Plays a key role in climate regulation by controlling how much solar radiation reaches the surface.
Stratopause (50 km) – Transition zone where temperature stops increasing before entering the colder mesosphere.

3. Mesosphere (50-85 km) – The Coldest Layer
•Coldest atmospheric layer (-90°C at the top).
•Burns up meteoroids, preventing them from reaching Earth’s surface.
•Plays a minor role in daily weather but contributes to long-term atmospheric circulation.
Mesopause (85 km) – Marks the coldest point in the atmosphere and the boundary between the mesosphere and thermosphere.

4. Thermosphere (85-600 km) – The Hot Layer
•Absorbs high-energy solar radiation, causing temperatures to rise significantly.
•Contains the ionosphere, which reflects radio waves, aiding global communication and GPS signals.
•Helps regulate heat exchange between Earth and space.
Thermopause (600 km and beyond) – The upper boundary controlling the loss of atmospheric gases into space.

5. Exosphere (600 km and beyond) – The Outermost Layer
•The thinnest layer, gradually merging with space.
•Contains satellites and has minimal impact on weather or climate.

Influence of Atmospheric Layers on Weather and Climate

1.Troposphere – Directly affects weather patterns, including temperature fluctuations, precipitation, and storms.
2.Stratosphere – The ozone layer regulates global temperature by absorbing UV radiation.
3.Mesosphere – Affects long-term atmospheric circulation and protects the Earth by burning up meteoroids.
4.Thermosphere – Influences heat balance, radio wave transmission, and auroras.
5.Exosphere – Has little impact on weather but marks Earth’s transition to space.

Industrial infrastructure, including railways, roads, and ports, plays a crucial role in India’s economic development by facilitating transportation, trade, industrial growth, and employment generation. A strong infrastructure network enhances connectivity, reduces logistics costs, and attracts investments, making industries more competitive globally.
1. Railways: Backbone of Industrial Transportation
Indian Railways is one of the largest railway networks in the world, playing a vital role in transporting goods and raw materials.
Contribution to Economic Growth
•Freight Transport: Carries coal, iron ore, cement, steel, and agricultural products to industries and markets.
•Connectivity: Links ports, mines, factories, and consumer markets, ensuring smooth production and distribution.
•Employment Generation: Provides direct and indirect jobs in railway operations, maintenance, and manufacturing.

2. Roads: Enhancing Mobility and Trade
India has the second-largest road network in the world, enabling the movement of goods and people.
Economic Impact
•National Highways & Expressways: Support fast transport of industrial goods across states.
•Rural-Urban Connectivity: Expands markets for agriculture, MSMEs, and logistics industries.
•Golden Quadrilateral & Industrial Corridors: Boost trade between Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, and Kolkata, attracting industries to urban centers.
•Employment & MSMEs: Creates jobs in construction, transport, and logistics sectors.
3. Ports: Facilitating International Trade
India has 12 major ports and over 200 minor ports handling 95% of India’s trade by volume.
Key Roles in Economic Growth
•Export & Import Hub: Handles industrial goods, petroleum, automobiles, and agricultural commodities.
•Special Economic Zones (SEZs): Ports like Mumbai, Chennai, and Vishakhapatnam attract foreign investments.
•Sagarmala Project: Improves port efficiency, boosts coastal trade, and reduces transportation costs.
•Blue Economy: Promotes fisheries, offshore energy, and shipbuilding industries

India’s energy sector is crucial for its economic growth, industrial development, and social progress. The country relies on multiple energy sources, including coal, petroleum, natural gas, and nuclear energy, to meet its growing demand. These energy resources are essential for power generation, transportation, industries, and domestic use.

1. Coal: Backbone of India’s Energy Sector
Importance:
• Coal is India’s primary energy source, accounting for ~55% of total energy consumption.
• Used mainly for electricity generation (thermal power plants), steel production, and cement industries.
• India is the 2nd largest producer and consumer of coal globally.
• Major coal reserves: Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal, and Madhya Pradesh.
• Challenges: High pollution levels, low efficiency, and environmental concerns.

2. Petroleum: Vital for Transportation and Industries
Importance:
•Petroleum products fuel transportation, power generation, and industries.
•India is heavily dependent on imports (imports ~85% of its crude oil needs).
•Major oil fields: Bombay High (offshore), Assam, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Krishna-Godavari Basin.
•Challenges: Price fluctuations, high import dependency, and carbon emissions.
•Government Initiatives: Ethanol blending, promotion of electric vehicles (EVs), and exploration of domestic reserves.

3. Natural Gas: A Cleaner Alternative
Importance:
•Considered a cleaner fossil fuel, with lower carbon emissions than coal and oil.
•Used in power generation, fertilizers, industries, and households (PNG and CNG).
•Major reserves: Krishna-Godavari Basin, Assam, Gujarat, Tripura, and Rajasthan.
•Government promoting city gas distribution (CGD) networks and LNG imports.
•Challenges: Limited domestic reserves, infrastructure development for gas pipelines.

4. Nuclear Energy: Future of Clean Power
Importance:
•Nuclear power is a low-carbon, high-efficiency energy source.
•Accounts for ~3% of India’s total electricity production, with plans for expansion.
•Major nuclear power plants: Tarapur (Maharashtra), Kudankulam (Tamil Nadu), Kaiga (Karnataka), and Rawatbhata (Rajasthan).
•Challenges: High costs, safety concerns, and public opposition.
•Government Initiatives: Expansion of nuclear energy under the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), collaboration with Russia, the USA, and France.

India is an agricultural powerhouse, producing a variety of crops due to its diverse climate, soil types, and irrigation facilities. Crops in India are classified into food crops (cereals, millets), cash crops (oilseeds, plantation crops), and horticultural crops (fruits and vegetables).

1. Cereals (Staple Food Crops)
Cereals are the primary source of food in India, covering the largest area under cultivation.
(a) Rice
•Most widely consumed staple in India.
•Grown in hot and humid conditions, requiring high rainfall (100-200 cm).
•Major Producing States: West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh.
•Top Producer: West Bengal.
(b) Wheat
•Second most important cereal, requires cool winters and warm summers.
•Grown in well-drained alluvial soil, mostly in Rabi season.
•Major Producing States: Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan.
•Top Producer: Uttar Pradesh.

2. Millets (Nutri-Cereals)
Millets are drought-resistant grains rich in nutrients, grown in semi-arid regions.
(a) Jowar
•Rain-fed crop requiring moderate rainfall.
•Major Producing States: Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Telangana.
•Top Producer: Maharashtra.
(b) Bajra
•Grows well in sandy, dry soils, needs less water.
•Major Producing States: Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh.
•Top Producer: Rajasthan.
(c) Ragi
•Grows in hilly regions, rich in calcium and iron.
•Major Producing States: Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Uttarakhand, Odisha.
•Top Producer: Karnataka.
3. Oilseeds (Cash Crops)
India is one of the largest producers of edible oilseeds, contributing to vegetable oil production.
(a) Groundnut
•Grown in both Kharif and Rabi seasons, prefers light, sandy soil.
•Major Producing States: Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh.
•Top Producer: Gujarat.
(b) Mustard
•Rabi crop, requires cool climate.
•Major Producing States: Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh.
•Top Producer: Rajasthan.
(c) Soybean
•Used in oil extraction and animal feed.
•Major Producing States: Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan.
•Top Producer: Madhya Pradesh.
4. Plantation Crops
These are commercially valuable crops grown in specific climatic conditions.
(a) Tea
•Requires humid, hilly slopes and well-drained soil.
•Major Producing States: Assam, West Bengal (Darjeeling), Tamil Nadu, Kerala.
•Top Producer: Assam.
(b) Coffee
•Grows in tropical hills, requires shade.
•Major Producing States: Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu.
•Top Producer: Karnataka (Coorg, Chikmagalur).
(c) Rubber
•Requires high rainfall and warm climate.
•Major Producing States: Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka.
•Top Producer: Kerala.
(d) Sugarcane
•Grown in tropical and subtropical regions, used in sugar and ethanol production.
•Major Producing States: Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu.
•Top Producer: Uttar Pradesh.