GS1

1. Devaraj Urs (Chief Minister, 1972–1980) implemented land reforms that transformed Karnataka’s agrarian structure and rural social justice.
2. Background and Need for Land Reforms

• Karnataka’s agriculture was controlled by powerful landlords (Zamindars and Patels), while Dalits and backward classes remained landless peasants.
• Social inequality and landlord oppression led to economic disparities, necessitating reforms.

2. Key Land Reform Policies Under Devaraj Urs

• Karnataka Land Reforms Act (1974):
  • Abolished absentee landlordism, transferring land ownership to tillers.
  • Tenants were given rights to own land if they had cultivated it for a certain period.
• Ceiling on Land Holdings:
  • Restricted land ownership to prevent monopolization.
  • Surplus land was redistributed among landless farmers.
• Special Benefits for Dalits and Backward Classes:
  • Ensured that Scheduled Castes and Other Backward Classes (OBCs) gained land rights.

3. Impact on Social Justice and Rural Economy

• Empowered Dalits and Backward Classes by reducing caste-based economic disparities.
• Weakened landlord dominance, leading to political empowerment of the rural poor.
• Increased agricultural productivity by making farmers direct owners of land.
• Migration to urban areas reduced, as small farmers gained self-sufficiency.

Conclusion:

The land reforms of Devaraj Urs were a landmark in Karnataka’s social justice movement, ensuring economic independence for marginalized communities and laying the foundation for socially inclusive development.

The Havanur Committee (1972–75), led by L.G. Havanur, played a crucial role in shaping Karnataka’s backward class policies by ensuring fair representation in education, employment, and politics.

1. Need for the Havanur Committee

• Karnataka had deep caste-based economic disparities, with dominant castes controlling land, education, and administration.
• OBCs (Other Backward Classes) had minimal representation in government jobs and education.
• There was a lack of scientific classification of backward classes for reservations.

2. Key Findings of the Havanur Committee

• Identified backward classes using social, educational, and economic criteria.
• Recommended reservations for OBCs, apart from SC/ST quotas.
• Divided backward classes into:
  • Category I (most backward)
  • Category II A (moderately backward)
  • Category II B (religious minorities)
  • Category III (less backward)

3. Impact on Karnataka’s Backward Class Policies

• Reservations in Education and Employment:
  • Increased OBC representation in universities and government jobs.
• Influenced Later Social Justice Commissions:
  • Formed the basis for the Chinnappa Reddy and Venkataswamy Committees.
• Strengthened Political Representation:
  • Empowered OBC communities in Karnataka’s political landscape.

Conclusion:

The Havanur Committee’s recommendations laid the foundation for Karnataka’s strong OBC policies, making it one of the most progressive states in social justice initiatives.

The Venkataswamy Committee (1984–86) was constituted to re-examine backward class policies in Karnataka after the implementation of the Havanur Committee’s recommendations.

1. Objectives of the Venkataswamy Committee

• To review and update the Havanur Committee’s recommendations.
• To ensure more precise classification of backward classes for reservation benefits.

2. Key Recommendations

• Revised classification of backward classes:
  • Divided into more detailed subcategories for targeted benefits.
• Increased reservation quotas for OBCs.
• Recommended affirmative action policies in private sector jobs.

3. Impact on Karnataka’s Social Policies

• Strengthened OBC political representation, leading to the rise of leaders from marginalized communities.
• Formed the basis for further studies on backward class reservations, such as the Chinnappa Reddy Commission.
• Ensured better implementation of social welfare programs for backward classes.

Conclusion:

The Venkataswamy Committee played a crucial role in refining Karnataka’s reservation policies, ensuring that social justice policies were continuously updated.

Dalit movements in Karnataka have evolved over the years, shifting from caste-based struggles to political assertion, land rights, and cultural identity.

1. Shift from Social Protest to Political Empowerment

• Earlier Dalit movements were focused on abolishing untouchability and caste discrimination.
• Today, Dalits have strong political representation in Karnataka’s Legislative Assembly and Parliament.

2. Role of Ambedkarite Movements

• Organizations like Dalit Sangharsha Samiti (DSS) have been instrumental in:
  • Fighting for land rights for Dalits.
  • Advocating for reservation policies in education and employment.
  • Mobilizing against caste-based atrocities.

3. Cultural Assertion and Identity Politics

• Increased emphasis on Dalit literature, art, and Kannada poetry to reclaim cultural narratives.
• Movements demanding greater recognition of Dalit icons like Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and Kuvempu.

4. Impact on State Policies

• Dalit activism has resulted in:
  • Strengthened SC/ST reservation policies.
  • Inclusion of Dalit issues in government welfare schemes.

Conclusion:

Recent Dalit movements in Karnataka have transformed from passive resistance to active political engagement, influencing state policies and social justice mechanisms.

The Gokak Movement (1980s) was a significant linguistic agitation in Karnataka demanding Kannada as the primary medium of instruction in schools. It played a pivotal role in shaping Karnataka’s linguistic identity and cultural politics.

1. Background: The Threat to Kannada

• After Karnataka’s unification in 1956, Kannada was recognized as the official language.
• However, English and Hindi gained prominence in education and administration, sidelining Kannada.
• In the late 1970s, a government policy proposed giving equal status to Sanskrit and Kannada in primary education, reducing Kannada’s importance.
• This triggered widespread protests, as Kannada activists feared linguistic marginalization.

2. The Gokak Committee (1980) and the Agitation

• The Gokak Committee, chaired by V.K. Gokak, was appointed to examine the issue.
• It recommended that Kannada should be the sole first language in schools, replacing Sanskrit or English.
• Kannada writers, artists, and activists, led by Dr. Rajkumar, K.S. Narasimhaswamy, and others, launched a statewide movement to implement the Gokak Report.

3. Role of Dr. Rajkumar and Mass Mobilization

• Dr. Rajkumar, Karnataka’s most popular film star, became the face of the movement, mobilizing massive public support.
• Protests, rallies, and cultural campaigns forced the government to accept the Gokak Committee recommendations in 1982.

4. Impact and Legacy of the Gokak Movement

• Kannada was officially restored as the primary medium of instruction in Karnataka’s schools.
• Strengthened linguistic nationalism, making Kannada identity central to state politics.
• Inspired future linguistic agitations, such as protests for Kannada job reservations and anti-Hindi imposition movements.

Conclusion:

The Gokak Movement reinforced Kannada’s dominance in Karnataka’s linguistic politics, highlighting the importance of language in regional identity, education, and governance.

The Mahajan Committee Report (1967) was a crucial yet controversial study regarding the border disputes between Karnataka and Maharashtra after the States Reorganization Act (1956).

1. Background of the Border Dispute

• In 1956, Karnataka (then Mysore State) was formed, merging Kannada-speaking areas from various provinces.
• However, Maharashtra claimed Belagavi, Karwar, Nipani, and other Marathi-speaking regions as part of its territory.
• The Mahajan Committee (chaired by Mehr Chand Mahajan) was appointed by the Government of India in 1967 to resolve the dispute.

2. Recommendations of the Mahajan Committee

• Rejected Maharashtra’s claims on Belagavi and Karwar, ruling that they belonged to Karnataka.
• Recommended some Marathi-speaking villages be transferred to Maharashtra, but these were minor adjustments.
• Maharashtra rejected the report, while Karnataka welcomed it.

3. Impact on Karnataka’s Political and Linguistic Landscape

• The dispute remains unresolved, with Maharashtra continuing to claim Belagavi.
• The Belagavi Sessions (2006) were held by the Karnataka Assembly in Belagavi to reaffirm its stance.
• Led to repeated tensions and protests in both states.

Conclusion:

Though the Mahajan Committee Report favored Karnataka, the border dispute persists, reflecting deep-seated linguistic and political rivalries between the two states.

Karnataka has faced several inter-state water disputes, particularly over river-sharing with Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Maharashtra. Resolving these disputes requires better policy frameworks, water-sharing agreements, and scientific management.

1. Major Water Disputes in Karnataka

• Cauvery Water Dispute (Karnataka vs. Tamil Nadu):
  • Karnataka claims it needs more Cauvery water for its growing agriculture and urban centers.
  • Tamil Nadu argues that historical agreements (1892, 1924) guarantee its rightful share.
  • The Cauvery Tribunal (2007) and Supreme Court rulings (2018) have not fully resolved tensions.
• Krishna River Dispute (Karnataka vs. Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra):
  • Karnataka seeks a higher share from the Krishna River Basin.
  • The Krishna Water Tribunal (2010) allocated specific shares, but conflicts remain.

2. Possible Policy Solutions

• Inter-State Water Councils:
  • Strengthening institutional mechanisms for dispute resolution.
• Scientific Water Management:
  • Using rainwater harvesting, irrigation efficiency, and groundwater recharge to reduce dependency on river waters.
• Legal Clarity:
  • Creating permanent legal frameworks rather than ad-hoc tribunal rulings.

Conclusion:

Water disputes in Karnataka can be mitigated through better negotiation, transparent agreements, and modern water conservation policies.

The Nanjundappa Committee Report (2002) was a landmark study that addressed regional economic disparities within Karnataka, particularly between North Karnataka and South Karnataka.

1. Identifying the Regional Imbalance

• North Karnataka (Hyderabad-Karnataka, Bombay-Karnataka) lagged behind in industrialization, infrastructure, and education.
• The Bangalore region grew rapidly, creating economic disparity.

2. Key Recommendations of the Report

• Special grants for backward districts to improve education, healthcare, and infrastructure.
• Developing Tier-2 cities like Hubli-Dharwad, Belagavi, and Kalaburagi to reduce dependency on Bangalore.
• More investments in irrigation projects for drought-prone areas.

3. Impact on Karnataka’s Development Policies

• Led to the Article 371(J) provision, granting special status to Hyderabad-Karnataka.
• Increased budgetary allocations for regional development.
• Helped in the establishment of industrial zones and better infrastructure in backward areas.

Conclusion:

The Nanjundappa Report played a critical role in bridging Karnataka’s regional imbalances, though challenges remain in fully implementing its recommendations.

Farmer movements in Karnataka are part of a larger agrarian crisis in India, characterized by low prices, debt burdens, climate change, and policy failures.

1. Major Farmer Movements in Karnataka

• Karnataka Rajya Raitha Sangha (KRRS) (1980s–Present):
  • Led protests for better minimum support prices (MSP) and debt relief.
  • Opposed corporate land acquisition and GM crops.
• Cauvery Water Protests (1990s–2020s):
  • Farmers in Mandya, Mysore, and Chamarajanagar protested water allocations to Tamil Nadu.
• Recent Protests Against Farm Bills (2020–21):
  • Karnataka farmers joined the nationwide agitation against central farm laws.

2. How Karnataka’s Agrarian Crisis Mirrors India’s Issues

• Debt and Suicides: Karnataka ranks among the top states for farmer suicides, similar to Maharashtra and Punjab.
• Climate Change: Drought-prone regions like Raichur and Bagalkot suffer from erratic monsoons, impacting crop yields.
• Market Exploitation: Farmers struggle with low MSPs and middlemen, a nationwide problem.

3. Policy Measures Needed

• Strengthening MSP for crops.
• Expanding irrigation projects in drought-affected regions.
• Direct income support and debt relief programs.

Conclusion:

Karnataka’s farmer movements highlight India’s broader agrarian crisis, demanding systemic reforms in pricing, debt relief, and water management.

The reservation system in Karnataka has evolved significantly, shaped by social justice movements, state commissions, and government policies. It has played a crucial role in addressing historical inequalities and ensuring representation for Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), and Other Backward Classes (OBCs).

1. Pre-Independence and Early Affirmative Action

• Mysore state, under the Wodeyar kings (20th century), was one of the first princely states to implement reservation policies for backward communities.
• In 1918, the Miller Committee Report recommended reservations for non-Brahmins in government jobs.

2. Post-Independence Expansion of Reservations

• After independence, Karnataka adopted national reservation policies for SCs and STs (15% and 3% respectively).
• The Havanur Committee (1975) expanded OBC reservations, classifying backward castes into Category I, II, and III.
• Venkataswamy Committee (1986) and Chinnappa Reddy Committee (1990) further revised the classification, leading to increased OBC quotas.

3. Recent Developments in Reservation Policies

• In 2022, the Karnataka government increased SC/ST reservations to 17% and 7% respectively.
• Religious minorities (Muslims, Jains, and Christians) also received quotas under the OBC category.
• Political Reservations for SCs/STs in local bodies were strengthened under Panchayat Raj reforms.

Conclusion:

Karnataka has progressively expanded its reservation policies, making them more inclusive and responsive to historical injustices, while also adapting to contemporary social and political challenges.

Affirmative action policies in Karnataka have been successful in promoting social mobility, but challenges remain in equitable distribution and implementation.

1. Achievements of Affirmative Action in Karnataka

• Increased Educational Representation:
  • Reservations in higher education (IITs, IIMs, medical colleges) have empowered backward communities.
• Employment Opportunities:
  • OBCs and SC/STs have better representation in government jobs, reducing caste-based exclusion.
• Political Empowerment:
  • SC/STs and OBCs have gained leadership roles in Karnataka’s Legislative Assembly and Panchayati Raj institutions.

2. Challenges and Limitations

• Economic Disparities Remain:
  • Affirmative action has not fully uplifted rural SC/ST populations, as many remain below the poverty line.
• Dominance of Elite OBC Groups:
  • The benefits of reservations are often concentrated in dominant OBC groups (like Vokkaligas and Lingayats), while marginalized castes still struggle.
• Legal Challenges and Opposition:
  • Reservation expansions face legal scrutiny, with the Supreme Court’s 50% reservation cap limiting further reforms.

Conclusion:

While affirmative action policies in Karnataka have reduced social exclusion, their impact is uneven, requiring further reforms to ensure fair distribution of benefits.

The Chinnappa Reddy Committee (1990) was a landmark study on backward classes in Karnataka, shaping reservation policies and social justice frameworks.

1. Objectives of the Chinnappa Reddy Committee

• To assess the socio-economic conditions of backward classes.
• To restructure the OBC reservation system based on scientific data.

2. Key Recommendations and Impact

• Refined OBC Classification:
  • Created four backward class categories (Category I, IIA, IIB, IIIA, IIIB) for targeted affirmative action.
• Increased Reservation Quotas:
  • Recommended 32% reservation for OBCs, which was implemented.
• Emphasized Educational and Economic Development:
  • Suggested scholarships, financial aid, and vocational training for marginalized groups.

3. Legacy and Long-Term Impact

• Karnataka became one of the first states to implement a structured OBC quota system, influencing national reservation policies.
• The report strengthened the social justice movement, ensuring better representation of historically disadvantaged communities.

Conclusion:

The Chinnappa Reddy Committee significantly shaped Karnataka’s reservation policies, making them scientific, data-driven, and inclusive.

Karnataka’s backward class policies aim for inclusive development, but there are both successes and challenges in their implementation.

1. Successes of Inclusive Development Policies

• Reservations in Education and Employment:
  • OBCs, SC/STs, and religious minorities benefit from 50% reservation quotas.
• Special Development Programs for Marginalized Communities:
  • Programs like the D. Devaraj Urs Development Corporation provide loans and financial aid to backward classes.
• Political Representation and Social Welfare:
  • Backward classes hold key political positions in Karnataka’s governance.

2. Challenges in Achieving True Inclusion

• Dominant OBC Castes Benefit More:
  • Groups like Lingayats and Vokkaligas receive more benefits than lower OBCs.
• Educational Gaps in Rural Areas:
  • Many Dalits and tribal groups still lack access to quality education.
• Economic Upliftment is Uneven:
  • Some communities have progressed, but many backward groups remain landless and unemployed.

Conclusion:

While Karnataka’s policies promote inclusive development, reforms are needed to ensure equitable distribution and uplift the most disadvantaged communities.

Dalit movements in Karnataka have played a pivotal role in reshaping political power, social justice policies, and caste-based representation.

1. Early Dalit Movements and Their Impact

• Inspired by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s ideals, Dalit movements in Karnataka emerged in the 1960s and 1970s.
• Organizations like the Dalit Sangharsha Samiti (DSS) led protests against untouchability, caste violence, and social discrimination.

2. Political Empowerment of Dalits

• Increased Representation in Government:
  • Karnataka’s SC/STs gained greater participation in legislative assemblies and local bodies.
• Rise of Dalit Leadership:
  • Leaders like K.H. Ranganath and G. Madegowda played a role in advocating land rights and social welfare policies.
• Implementation of SC/ST Welfare Programs:
  • Reservations in jobs, education, and local governance improved social mobility for Dalits.

3. Role of Dalit Movements in Social and Economic Justice

• Fought for Land Rights:
  • Movements pushed for land redistribution and tenancy rights for Dalits.
• Tackling Caste-Based Violence:
  • Activists led legal battles against atrocities on Dalits in rural Karnataka.

4. Challenges and Future Directions

• Caste Discrimination Persists:
  • Dalits still face social exclusion and economic marginalization in some areas.
• Need for Dalit Political Unity:
  • Fragmentation among Dalit groups weakens collective political bargaining power.

Conclusion:

Dalit movements in Karnataka transformed the political landscape, leading to greater representation, policy changes, and legal protections, but challenges in social equality and economic empowerment remain.

1. Devaraj Urs (1915–1982) was one of Karnataka’s most progressive leaders, known for his radical reforms that empowered marginalized communities, landless farmers, Dalits, and OBCs. His tenure as Chief Minister (1972–1980) marked a turning point in social justice, economic policies, and political empowerment in Karnataka.
2. Landmark Land Reforms and Agrarian Justice

• Karnataka Land Reforms Act (1974):
  • Abolished absentee landlordism, transferring land ownership to tillers.
  • Empowered Dalits, backward classes, and small farmers by redistributing land.
• Impact on Marginalized Communities:
  • Reduced caste-based economic disparity.
  • Increased self-sufficiency for lower-caste farmers, weakening feudal control.

2. Expansion of Reservation Policies

• Implemented Havanur Committee Report (1975), expanding OBC reservations in education and jobs.
• Introduced political reservations for SC/STs in local governance, increasing Dalit representation.

3. Focus on Education and Social Mobility

• Started free school schemes and hostel facilities for Dalit and OBC students.
• Introduced scholarships and fee waivers for underprivileged communities.
• Strengthened Kannada-medium education, ensuring linguistic and cultural identity.

4. Political Representation for Backward Classes

• Encouraged OBCs and Dalits to contest elections, breaking Brahmin and Lingayat dominance.
• Laid the foundation for the rise of Dalit and backward-class leaders in Karnataka politics.

5. Opposition to Caste-Based Discrimination

• Strongly opposed upper-caste hegemony in administration.
• Supported Dalit movements and labor rights organizations.

Conclusion:

Devaraj Urs’ policies transformed Karnataka’s socio-political structure, ensuring that marginalized communities gained access to land, education, and political representation. His reforms continue to shape Karnataka’s social justice framework today.

1. The Havanur Committee (1975) and Chinnappa Reddy Committee (1990) played crucial roles in shaping Karnataka’s backward class policies, influencing reservation frameworks, political empowerment, and social mobility.
   1. Objectives of the Reports

   Committee	Objective	Key Focus
   Havanur Committee (1975)	First detailed study on backward class reservations	Identified backward castes, increasing reservation quotas
   Chinnappa Reddy Committee (1990)	Reviewed OBC classifications and revised quotas	Reorganized categories for fairer distribution of benefits

   2. Key Findings and Impact on Backward Classes
   • Havanur Committee:
     • Classified backward communities into broader categories (OBCs, SC/STs).
     • Recommended 32% reservation for OBCs.
     • Introduced economic and educational support for backward communities.
   • Chinnappa Reddy Committee:
     • Further refined OBC subcategories into Category I, IIA, IIB, IIIA, IIIB.
     • Ensured better-targeted affirmative action, reducing dominance of powerful OBC groups.
     • Increased scholarship and employment quotas for most backward classes.
   3. Political and Social Impact
   • Havanur Report:
     • Laid the foundation for Dalit and OBC political empowerment.
     • Created awareness of caste-based discrimination, leading to stronger social movements.
   • Chinnappa Reddy Report:
     • Refined reservation policies, ensuring fairer representation of various OBC groups.
     • Strengthened Karnataka’s leadership in affirmative action, influencing national policies.

   Conclusion:

   Both committees revolutionized Karnataka’s reservation system, but Havanur laid the groundwork, while Chinnappa Reddy fine-tuned the process, making it more inclusive and effective.

1. Karnataka has implemented progressive welfare schemes to promote social justice, economic upliftment, and equitable growth. While many policies have succeeded, challenges remain in effective implementation.
   1. Major Social Justice Schemes in Karnataka
   • Land Reforms and Dalit Empowerment:
     • Devaraj Urs’ land redistribution policies empowered lower castes.
     • Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Development Corporation provides financial aid to SC/ST communities.
   • Education and Employment Reservations:
     • Post-Matric Scholarships for SC/ST/OBC students.
     • Free hostel facilities and reservations in government jobs.
   • Health and Livelihood Programs:
     • Bhagyalakshmi Scheme (financial aid for girl children from BPL families).
     • Anna Bhagya Yojana (providing free ration to economically weaker sections).
   2. Achievements in Social Justice
   • Increased Representation of Marginalized Communities:
     • SC/ST and OBC leaders now hold key political positions.
   • Improved Literacy and Economic Status:
     • Dalit and backward-class literacy rates have improved due to government aid.
   • Reduction in Caste-Based Discrimination:
     • Urban Karnataka has witnessed a decline in caste-based restrictions.
   3. Challenges in Achieving Full Social Justice
   • Economic Disparities Persist:
     • Dalits and tribals still face poverty, particularly in rural Karnataka.
   • Inequitable Distribution of Benefits:
     • Elite OBCs (Vokkaligas, Lingayats) receive more benefits than marginalized groups.
   • Bureaucratic Delays and Corruption:
     • Many welfare schemes suffer from poor implementation and fund mismanagement.

   Conclusion:

   While Karnataka has made significant progress in social justice, true inclusivity requires better implementation, targeted reforms, and reduced bureaucratic inefficiencies.

1. Karnataka has experienced regional imbalances in terms of economic development, industrialization, infrastructure, and education. The divide between South Karnataka (Bangalore, Mysore) and North Karnataka (Hyderabad-Karnataka, Bombay-Karnataka) is particularly stark.
   1. Historical and Political Neglect
   • British-era policies favored South Karnataka due to its climate, administrative centers, and railway network.
   • Post-independence, the state capital Bangalore became the focal point of investment, while North Karnataka remained neglected.
   2. Unequal Industrial Development
   • Bangalore, Mysore, and Mangalore saw major industrialization, whereas regions like Koppal, Raichur, and Gulbarga lacked industries.
   • The IT sector boom (1990s) was concentrated in Bangalore, further widening disparities.
   3. Irrigation and Agriculture Disparities
   • South Karnataka benefits from the Cauvery river system, ensuring better irrigation.
   • North Karnataka is drought-prone, leading to lower agricultural productivity and poverty.
   4. Poor Infrastructure in North Karnataka
   • Roads, railways, healthcare, and education facilities are better in South Karnataka, attracting more investments.
   • Tier-2 cities in North Karnataka (Hubli, Belagavi) lack urban infrastructure, preventing economic growth.
   5. Socio-Economic Backwardness
   • North Karnataka has higher illiteracy rates, lower per capita income, and weaker human development indicators.
   • Health and education indices are significantly lower in Gulbarga, Raichur, and Yadgir compared to Bangalore and Mysore.

   Conclusion:

   Regional imbalance in Karnataka stems from historical, economic, and infrastructural disparities, requiring policy interventions to ensure equitable growth.

1. The Nanjundappa Committee (2002) was Karnataka’s most comprehensive study on regional disparities, recommending targeted development programs for backward regions.
   1. Key Recommendations of the Nanjundappa Committee
   • Identification of Most Backward Taluks:
     • The committee classified 114 taluks as “backward” and 39 as “most backward”.
   • Special Development Plans:
     • Proposed a ₹16,000 crore Special Development Plan (SDP) for infrastructure, education, and healthcare.
   • Industrial and Agricultural Reforms:
     • Recommended industrial incentives for businesses investing in backward regions.
     • Suggested expansion of irrigation projects in dry areas.
   2. Achievements and Implementation
   • Article 371(J) was introduced for Hyderabad-Karnataka (2012), providing special employment and education benefits.
   • Better roads, schools, and water projects were implemented in backward districts.
   • Tier-2 cities like Hubli and Belagavi saw some industrial growth.
   3. Challenges and Shortcomings
   • Funding shortages and delays slowed the impact of reforms.
   • Bangalore still attracts 70% of investments, limiting growth in backward regions.
   • Local governance inefficiencies reduced the effectiveness of development programs.

   Conclusion:

   While the Nanjundappa Report has led to some policy changes, its full potential remains unrealized due to weak implementation and lack of sustained funding.